(24) When would a population have a clumped distribution and when would a population have a uniform distribution (what are the advantages and disadvantages to each distribution type)?
A. Clump distribution is when individuals occur in groups. For example, suitable habitat or other resources may be distributed as patches resulting in clump distributions. Uniform distribution is when individuals are spread apart equally. For example, when competition for resources is intense it tends to be uniform distribution.
Advantages of clump distribution are – protection from predator, raising offspring, and increasing chance of catching prey. Disadvantages are – resources are limited, competition among each other
Advantages of uniform – more resources for the individual Disadvantages -
B.A population has a clumped population when there are social interactions between the individuals. Another reason would be there are small colonies. Also when there is no distribution of seeds, like when the annual seeds just drop.
A population has a uniform population when resources are scarce and the other individuals will press the other individual out.
C.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_distribution
Clumped distribution
Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In clumped distribution,the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of distribution is found in environments that is characterized by patchy resources. Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature because animals need certain resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year animals tend to “clump” together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered together in an area due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups, for example wolves in packs. Organisms that usually serve as prey form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect predators easily.
Other causes of clumped distributions are the inability of offspring to independently move from their habitat. This is seen in juvenile animals that are immobile and strongly dependent upon parental care. For example, the bald eagle's nest of eaglets exhibits a clumped species distribution because all the offspring are in a small subset of a survey area before they learn to fly. Clumped distribution can be beneficial to the individuals in that group. However, in some herbivore cases, such as cows and willdabeasts, the vegetation around them can suffer, especially if animals target one plane in particular.
Clumped distribution in species acts as a mechanism against predation as well as an efficient mechanism to trap or corner prey. African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus, use the technique of communal hunting to increase their success rate at catching prey. It has been shown that larger packs of African wild dogs tend to have a greater number of successful kills. A prime example of clumped distribution due to patchy resources is the wildlife in Africa during the dry season; lions, hyenas, giraffes, elephants, gazelles, and many more animals are clumped by small water sources that are present in the severe dry season.[1] It has also been observed that extinct and threatened species are more likely to be clumped in their distribution on a phylogeny. The reasoning behind this is that they share traits that increase vulnerability to extinction because related taxa are often located within the same broad geographical or habitat types where human-induced threats are concentrated. Using recently developed complete phylogenies for mammalian carnivores and primates it has been shown that the majority of instances threatened species are far from randomly distributed among taxa and phylogenetic clades and display clumped distribution.[2]
Monday, March 22, 2010
(23) What are the characteristics of a population? What factors limit the distribution of a population?
A. The characteristics of a population are the number of births, the number of deaths, the number of reproductively mature individuals, the survival rate, and the immigration/ emigration.
Limiting factors are food, water, space, precipitation, temperature, diseases, sex ratio, quality of habitat, oxygen, natural disasters, competition (interspecific and intraspecific).
B.http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/campbl52.htm
Population
(a) A population in an ecological sense is a group of organisms, of the same species, which roughly occupy the same geographical area at the same time
(b) Individual members of the same population can either interact directly, or may interact with the dispersing progeny of other members of the same population (e.g., pollen)
(c) Population members interact with a similar environment and experience similar environmental limitations
A. The characteristics of a population are the number of births, the number of deaths, the number of reproductively mature individuals, the survival rate, and the immigration/ emigration.
Limiting factors are food, water, space, precipitation, temperature, diseases, sex ratio, quality of habitat, oxygen, natural disasters, competition (interspecific and intraspecific).
B.http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/campbl52.htm
Population
(a) A population in an ecological sense is a group of organisms, of the same species, which roughly occupy the same geographical area at the same time
(b) Individual members of the same population can either interact directly, or may interact with the dispersing progeny of other members of the same population (e.g., pollen)
(c) Population members interact with a similar environment and experience similar environmental limitations
(21) Discuss the difference between a R selected species and a K selected species. Give an example of an organism in each group.
A. (See table 12.1 in lecture notes)
An example of a R selected species is salmon. An example of a K selected species is human.
B.R-strategists are short lived, have high reproductive rates, rapid development, small in size, large number of offspring, and minimal parental care. Some r-strategists have wide dispersal, are good colonizers, and respond rapidly to disturbance. K-strategists are competitive species with stable populations of long lived individuals. They have slower growth rate at low populations, but they maintain growth rate at high densities. K-strategists can cope with physical and biotic pressures. They have late reproduction and have large body size and slow development. They also have few offspring and usually care for the offspring. They are efficient users of a particular environment, but their populations are at near carrying capacity and resources are limited. They lack the means for wide dispersal making them poor colonizers.
An example of a K-selected specie is whales. Whales are long lived and have small populations. Whales have very few offspring and take care of their offspring. They grow and mature over a long period of time. They reproduce at a later age when mature. An example of an R-selected are rats because they often have large litters and are always fertile. They don’t live long, grow fast, have large populations, and have rapid growth.
C. R selected species tend to have short life spans and large clutches. Examples of these include mice and frogs. K selected species tend to have long lives and long juvenile periods as well as only one child at a time an example is tortoises.
D.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/K_selection_theory
r-selection (unstable environments)
In unstable or unpredictable environments, r-selection predominates as the ability to reproduce quickly is crucial. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Traits that are thought to be characteristic of r-selection include: high fecundity, small body size, early maturity onset, short generation time, and the ability to disperse offspring widely. Organisms whose life history is subject to r-selection are often referred to as r-strategists or r-selected. Organisms with r-selected traits range from bacteria and diatoms, through insects and weeds, to various semelparous cephalopods and mammals, especially small rodents.
[edit] K-selection (stable environments)
In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly). Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection include: large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring that require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected. Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, trees, humans and whales, but also smaller, long-lived organisms such as Arctic Terns.
A. (See table 12.1 in lecture notes)
An example of a R selected species is salmon. An example of a K selected species is human.
B.R-strategists are short lived, have high reproductive rates, rapid development, small in size, large number of offspring, and minimal parental care. Some r-strategists have wide dispersal, are good colonizers, and respond rapidly to disturbance. K-strategists are competitive species with stable populations of long lived individuals. They have slower growth rate at low populations, but they maintain growth rate at high densities. K-strategists can cope with physical and biotic pressures. They have late reproduction and have large body size and slow development. They also have few offspring and usually care for the offspring. They are efficient users of a particular environment, but their populations are at near carrying capacity and resources are limited. They lack the means for wide dispersal making them poor colonizers.
An example of a K-selected specie is whales. Whales are long lived and have small populations. Whales have very few offspring and take care of their offspring. They grow and mature over a long period of time. They reproduce at a later age when mature. An example of an R-selected are rats because they often have large litters and are always fertile. They don’t live long, grow fast, have large populations, and have rapid growth.
C. R selected species tend to have short life spans and large clutches. Examples of these include mice and frogs. K selected species tend to have long lives and long juvenile periods as well as only one child at a time an example is tortoises.
D.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/K_selection_theory
r-selection (unstable environments)
In unstable or unpredictable environments, r-selection predominates as the ability to reproduce quickly is crucial. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Traits that are thought to be characteristic of r-selection include: high fecundity, small body size, early maturity onset, short generation time, and the ability to disperse offspring widely. Organisms whose life history is subject to r-selection are often referred to as r-strategists or r-selected. Organisms with r-selected traits range from bacteria and diatoms, through insects and weeds, to various semelparous cephalopods and mammals, especially small rodents.
[edit] K-selection (stable environments)
In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly). Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection include: large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring that require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected. Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, trees, humans and whales, but also smaller, long-lived organisms such as Arctic Terns.
(20) For a given allocation to reproduction, there is a trade-off between the number and the size of offspring produced. What types of environment would favor plant species with a strategy of producing many small seeds rather than few large ones?
A.Plants in competitive environment would produce many small seeds because it would increase the chances that there would be offspring that survive. Producing large seeds would decrease the chance of having an offspring survive in because there might be too much competition for resources for the large seed to develop and grow.
B.The larger the offspring produced the more energy and resources went into making the offspring and the single offspring has a higher chance of survival and less competition. Having many offspring means that your genes aren’t supported by only one child. Some offspring will and can die but your genetic coding will continue on. Environments rich in nutrients warm temperature and fresh water would favor large clutches.
A.Plants in competitive environment would produce many small seeds because it would increase the chances that there would be offspring that survive. Producing large seeds would decrease the chance of having an offspring survive in because there might be too much competition for resources for the large seed to develop and grow.
B.The larger the offspring produced the more energy and resources went into making the offspring and the single offspring has a higher chance of survival and less competition. Having many offspring means that your genes aren’t supported by only one child. Some offspring will and can die but your genetic coding will continue on. Environments rich in nutrients warm temperature and fresh water would favor large clutches.
(19) What factors can influence the reproductive success of an organism? When would it be beneficial to allocate more resources to growth rather than reproduction?
A. All limiting factors mentioning in question 23
It would be more beneficial to allocate more resources to growth rather than reproduction when species have to live in a competitive habitat. Their priorities are food, spaces, water and other resources. That’s why they need to grow as much as possible to be able to stand the harshness of their living environment.
B.Factors that affect reproductive success of an organism – environment, survival, resources, genes, and adaptation.
C.Factors that can influence the success of an organism reproduction include amount of water, food/ nutrients available, surviving infancy. If there are more resources available then a large family makes since prepare for the future. Sometimes it makes more since to concentrate on growth if you don’t believe offspring wont survive because there are few resources.
D.>> predations, environment... when the environmental condition is harsh it is more
E.The ability of one the male to capture the interest of the female. Limited energy allocated to reproduction. The more energy they spend on reproduction, the less for growth and maintenance.
A. All limiting factors mentioning in question 23
It would be more beneficial to allocate more resources to growth rather than reproduction when species have to live in a competitive habitat. Their priorities are food, spaces, water and other resources. That’s why they need to grow as much as possible to be able to stand the harshness of their living environment.
B.Factors that affect reproductive success of an organism – environment, survival, resources, genes, and adaptation.
C.Factors that can influence the success of an organism reproduction include amount of water, food/ nutrients available, surviving infancy. If there are more resources available then a large family makes since prepare for the future. Sometimes it makes more since to concentrate on growth if you don’t believe offspring wont survive because there are few resources.
D.>> predations, environment... when the environmental condition is harsh it is more
E.The ability of one the male to capture the interest of the female. Limited energy allocated to reproduction. The more energy they spend on reproduction, the less for growth and maintenance.
(18) If you discover a new species, what information would you need to know to determine how that species diverged from another species?
A.Species that diverged from each other long ago have more differences in their DNA than species that diverged recently. Scientists use this degree of difference as a molecular clock to help them predict how long ago species split apart from one another. In general the longer ago two species split, the more distantly related they are. Because the DNA sequence determines a protein's amino acid sequence, a gene shared by two closely related organisms should have similar, or even identical, amino acid sequences. That's because closely related species most likely diverged from one another fairly recently in the evolutionary span. Thus, they haven't had as much time to accumulate random mutations in their genetic codes.
B.>> look at phylogeny differences/similarities, etc.
A.Species that diverged from each other long ago have more differences in their DNA than species that diverged recently. Scientists use this degree of difference as a molecular clock to help them predict how long ago species split apart from one another. In general the longer ago two species split, the more distantly related they are. Because the DNA sequence determines a protein's amino acid sequence, a gene shared by two closely related organisms should have similar, or even identical, amino acid sequences. That's because closely related species most likely diverged from one another fairly recently in the evolutionary span. Thus, they haven't had as much time to accumulate random mutations in their genetic codes.
B.>> look at phylogeny differences/similarities, etc.
(17) Explain the differences and similarities between allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation.
A.Allopatric speciation is speciation by geographic isolation. A hypothetical example a big rock blocks the path of a river, which changes course and cuts through the place where some rabbits live. Then, a man moves into the north side of the river and starts killing the rabbits that eat his farm food, while the southern side remains the same as before. You see the difference in the environment? Because there is a different environment, different genes would be selected through natural selection. As time goes by, the genotype of these two populations would be very different, so different that they may not be able to interbreed again.
Sympatric speciation occurs in the same geographic region. A hypothetical example can be birds in a forest. The birds with big beaks can peck through the big nuts and eat them, which the birds with small beaks can peck through small nuts and eat them. However, birds with medium beaks can't pick through the small nuts or crack the big ones, so they would be eliminated by natural selection. Instead, natural selection selects for the two extreme beak sizes, leading the group that specializes on big nuts to grow bigger and bigger beaks, and the group that specializes on small nuts to grow smaller and smaller beaks. Eventually, their genome is so different that they can no longer interbreed.
They are similar in that there is some sort of challenge that made the organism change.
B.Allopatric speciation is where there is a geographic barrier separating a population which causes adaptation. Sympatric speciation is where there is something other than geological barrier separating a population. There are a few types of sympatric speciation including: Hybrid infertility, gametic isolation (the egg and sperm don’t fit), Mechanical isolation (not physically capable), behavioral isolation (they are just not attracted to each other), temporal isolation (awake at different times), Ecological isolation (live in the same place but don’t interact).
C.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation
allopatric speciation is speciation by geographic isolation. A hypothetical example a big rock blocks the path of a river, which changes course and cuts through the place where some rabbits live. Then, a man moves into the north side of the river and starts killing the rabbits that eat his farm food, while the southern side remains the same as before. You see the difference in the environment? Because there is a different environment, different genes would be selected through natural selection. As time goes by, the genotype of these two populations would be very different, so different that they may not be able to interbreed again. An actual, rather famous, example of this is Darwin's Finches.
sympatric speciation occurs in the same geographic region. A hypothetical example can be birds in a forest. The birds with big beaks can peck through the big nuts and eat them, which the birds with small beaks can peck through small nuts and eat them. However, birds with medium beaks can't pick through the small nuts or crack the big ones, so they would be eliminated by natural selection. Instead, natural selection selects for the two extreme beak sizes, leading the group that specializes on big nuts to grow bigger and bigger beaks, and the group that specializes on small nuts to grow smaller and smaller beaks. Eventually, their genome is so different that they can no longer interbreed. An actual example of this is the resident and transient orcas.
D.Allopatric speciation has a geographical barrier that separates a pop. And cause it to evolve and become reproductively isolated. Sympatric speciation occurs within a subgroup of the population and evolve to be reproductively isolated. They are both similar that the species ends up becoming reproductively isolated.
A.Allopatric speciation is speciation by geographic isolation. A hypothetical example a big rock blocks the path of a river, which changes course and cuts through the place where some rabbits live. Then, a man moves into the north side of the river and starts killing the rabbits that eat his farm food, while the southern side remains the same as before. You see the difference in the environment? Because there is a different environment, different genes would be selected through natural selection. As time goes by, the genotype of these two populations would be very different, so different that they may not be able to interbreed again.
Sympatric speciation occurs in the same geographic region. A hypothetical example can be birds in a forest. The birds with big beaks can peck through the big nuts and eat them, which the birds with small beaks can peck through small nuts and eat them. However, birds with medium beaks can't pick through the small nuts or crack the big ones, so they would be eliminated by natural selection. Instead, natural selection selects for the two extreme beak sizes, leading the group that specializes on big nuts to grow bigger and bigger beaks, and the group that specializes on small nuts to grow smaller and smaller beaks. Eventually, their genome is so different that they can no longer interbreed.
They are similar in that there is some sort of challenge that made the organism change.
B.Allopatric speciation is where there is a geographic barrier separating a population which causes adaptation. Sympatric speciation is where there is something other than geological barrier separating a population. There are a few types of sympatric speciation including: Hybrid infertility, gametic isolation (the egg and sperm don’t fit), Mechanical isolation (not physically capable), behavioral isolation (they are just not attracted to each other), temporal isolation (awake at different times), Ecological isolation (live in the same place but don’t interact).
C.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation
allopatric speciation is speciation by geographic isolation. A hypothetical example a big rock blocks the path of a river, which changes course and cuts through the place where some rabbits live. Then, a man moves into the north side of the river and starts killing the rabbits that eat his farm food, while the southern side remains the same as before. You see the difference in the environment? Because there is a different environment, different genes would be selected through natural selection. As time goes by, the genotype of these two populations would be very different, so different that they may not be able to interbreed again. An actual, rather famous, example of this is Darwin's Finches.
sympatric speciation occurs in the same geographic region. A hypothetical example can be birds in a forest. The birds with big beaks can peck through the big nuts and eat them, which the birds with small beaks can peck through small nuts and eat them. However, birds with medium beaks can't pick through the small nuts or crack the big ones, so they would be eliminated by natural selection. Instead, natural selection selects for the two extreme beak sizes, leading the group that specializes on big nuts to grow bigger and bigger beaks, and the group that specializes on small nuts to grow smaller and smaller beaks. Eventually, their genome is so different that they can no longer interbreed. An actual example of this is the resident and transient orcas.
D.Allopatric speciation has a geographical barrier that separates a pop. And cause it to evolve and become reproductively isolated. Sympatric speciation occurs within a subgroup of the population and evolve to be reproductively isolated. They are both similar that the species ends up becoming reproductively isolated.
(16) What are the 5 main assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium? Be able to use the equation to determine if evolution has occurred for a trait (BRING A CALCULATOR).
A. 5 main assumptions are – mating is random; mutations do not occur; the population is large, so that genetic drift is not a significant factor; there is no migration; and natural selection does not occur.
B.1. infinite population size (there are infinitely many individuals in the population)
2. there is no movement of individuals from population to population
3. there is no mutation (no biochemical changes in DNA that produce new alleles.)
4. there is random mating (this means that with regard to the trait we're looking at, individuals mate at random -- they don't select mates based on this trait in any way.)
5. the different genotypes (for the genetic trait we're studying) have equal fitness. This means there is no natural selection affecting this trait (remember one of the conditions for natural selection is that some traits result in higher fitness than others.)
C.There are five main assumptions of the Hardy Weinberg equation.
Infinite population size
No movement of individuals among population.(genetic drift)
There is no mutation.
Random mating
Different genotypes
No natural selection
A = #A/#total
a = #a/#total
P^2+2pq+q^2=1
D.http://www.utm.edu/departments/cens/biology/rirwin/391/391HWElec.htm
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is defined as the situation in which no evolution is occurring.
A trait (coded for by some gene with alternate alleles) in a population will be in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium if five assumptions are met. These are:
1. infinite population size (there are infinitely many individuals in the population)
2. there is no movement of individuals from population to population
3. there is no mutation (no biochemical changes in DNA that produce new alleles.)
4. there is random mating (this means that with regard to the trait we're looking at, individuals mate at random -- they don't select mates based on this trait in any way.)
5. the different genotypes (for the genetic trait we're studying) have equal fitness. This means there is no natural selection affecting this trait (remember one of the conditions for natural selection is that some traits result in higher fitness than others.)
E.1. mating is random
2. mutations do not occur
3. the population is large
4. there is no migration
5. natural selection does not occur
A. 5 main assumptions are – mating is random; mutations do not occur; the population is large, so that genetic drift is not a significant factor; there is no migration; and natural selection does not occur.
B.1. infinite population size (there are infinitely many individuals in the population)
2. there is no movement of individuals from population to population
3. there is no mutation (no biochemical changes in DNA that produce new alleles.)
4. there is random mating (this means that with regard to the trait we're looking at, individuals mate at random -- they don't select mates based on this trait in any way.)
5. the different genotypes (for the genetic trait we're studying) have equal fitness. This means there is no natural selection affecting this trait (remember one of the conditions for natural selection is that some traits result in higher fitness than others.)
C.There are five main assumptions of the Hardy Weinberg equation.
Infinite population size
No movement of individuals among population.(genetic drift)
There is no mutation.
Random mating
Different genotypes
No natural selection
A = #A/#total
a = #a/#total
P^2+2pq+q^2=1
D.http://www.utm.edu/departments/cens/biology/rirwin/391/391HWElec.htm
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium is defined as the situation in which no evolution is occurring.
A trait (coded for by some gene with alternate alleles) in a population will be in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium if five assumptions are met. These are:
1. infinite population size (there are infinitely many individuals in the population)
2. there is no movement of individuals from population to population
3. there is no mutation (no biochemical changes in DNA that produce new alleles.)
4. there is random mating (this means that with regard to the trait we're looking at, individuals mate at random -- they don't select mates based on this trait in any way.)
5. the different genotypes (for the genetic trait we're studying) have equal fitness. This means there is no natural selection affecting this trait (remember one of the conditions for natural selection is that some traits result in higher fitness than others.)
E.1. mating is random
2. mutations do not occur
3. the population is large
4. there is no migration
5. natural selection does not occur
(15) Provide an example of an organism in a natural population showing an adaptation for a particular environment, and discuss how that adaptation may shower higher or lower fitness in a new environment. Why is it that only populations, and not individuals, evolve?
A.Cactus adapt to the desert by having smaller leaves, grow compactly and close to the ground, and a non-porous covering on their leaves such as wax. Hair on the leaves on the plant helps to reduce the evaporation of moisture from the surface of leaves by reflecting sunlight and inhibiting air movement. If a cactus is moved to a wet environment it would have lower fitness because it would probability die or not grow well because it’s not adapted for wet environments.
Individual organisms don't evolve. Populations evolve. Because individuals in a population vary, some in the population are better able to survive and reproduce given a particular set of environmental conditions. These individuals generally survive and produce more offspring, thus passing their advantageous traits on to the next generation. So over time, the population changes.
B.Walrus have evolved to exist in the coldest area of the world. It has a thick blubber undercoat to keep it warm on the ice and to keep it fed when food is scarce. It is a really large mammal. It has a torpedo shaped body to help move through water. If the walrus were to move to warmer waters it would have a lower fitness because of competition. The walrus’s harem is too large to exist in areas that are populated by a lot of creatures. Also the blubber would be too warm and internal organs would suffer. Populations evolve because the next generation is where gene changing appears. Individuals in a population vary their offspring will also vary.
C.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection
Natural selection is the process by which those heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations.
A well-known example of natural selection in action is the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. Natural populations of bacteria contain, among their vast numbers of individual members, considerable variation in their genetic material, primarily as the result of mutations. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations that make them slightly less susceptible. If the exposure to antibiotics is short, these individuals will survive the treatment. This selective elimination of maladapted individuals from a population is natural selection.
These surviving bacteria will then reproduce again, producing the next generation. Due to the elimination of the maladapted individuals in the past generation, this population contains more bacteria that have some resistance against the antibiotic. At the same time, new mutations occur, contributing new genetic variation to the existing genetic variation. Spontaneous mutations are very rare, and advantageous mutations are even rarer. However, populations of bacteria are large enough that a few individuals will have beneficial mutations. If a new mutation reduces their susceptibility to an antibiotic, these individuals are more likely to survive when next confronted with that antibiotic.
Given enough time, and repeated exposure to the antibiotic, a population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria will emerge. This new changed population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is optimally adapted to the context it evolved in. At the same time, it is not necessarily optimally adapted any more to the old antibiotic free environment. The end result of natural selection is two populations that are both optimally adapted to their specific environment, while both perform substandard in the other environment.
The widespread use and misuse of antibiotics has resulted in increased microbial resistance to antibiotics in clinical use, to the point that the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been described as a "superbug" because of the threat it poses to health and its relative invulnerability to existing drugs.[11] Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs.[12]
This is an example of what is known as an evolutionary arms race, in which bacteria continue to develop strains that are less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers continue to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects. Arms races are not necessarily induced by man; a well-documented example involves the elaboration of the RNA interference pathway in plants as means of innate immunity against viruses.[13]
D.A freshwater water fish is adapted to living in freshwater and peeing out water constantly to maintain a salt concentration. If the freshwater fish was placed in saltwater, the freshwater fish would have a lower fitness in this new environment because it is not physically capable of handling all that salt content. “Only populations evolve because evolution requires a competing force as well as variation in order to evolve. A species is rarely represented by a single continuous interbreeding population. Instead, the population of a species is typically composed of a group of subpopulations-local populations of interbreeding individuals, linked to each other in varying degrees by the movement of individuals.”
A.Cactus adapt to the desert by having smaller leaves, grow compactly and close to the ground, and a non-porous covering on their leaves such as wax. Hair on the leaves on the plant helps to reduce the evaporation of moisture from the surface of leaves by reflecting sunlight and inhibiting air movement. If a cactus is moved to a wet environment it would have lower fitness because it would probability die or not grow well because it’s not adapted for wet environments.
Individual organisms don't evolve. Populations evolve. Because individuals in a population vary, some in the population are better able to survive and reproduce given a particular set of environmental conditions. These individuals generally survive and produce more offspring, thus passing their advantageous traits on to the next generation. So over time, the population changes.
B.Walrus have evolved to exist in the coldest area of the world. It has a thick blubber undercoat to keep it warm on the ice and to keep it fed when food is scarce. It is a really large mammal. It has a torpedo shaped body to help move through water. If the walrus were to move to warmer waters it would have a lower fitness because of competition. The walrus’s harem is too large to exist in areas that are populated by a lot of creatures. Also the blubber would be too warm and internal organs would suffer. Populations evolve because the next generation is where gene changing appears. Individuals in a population vary their offspring will also vary.
C.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection
Natural selection is the process by which those heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations.
A well-known example of natural selection in action is the development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms. Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. Natural populations of bacteria contain, among their vast numbers of individual members, considerable variation in their genetic material, primarily as the result of mutations. When exposed to antibiotics, most bacteria die quickly, but some may have mutations that make them slightly less susceptible. If the exposure to antibiotics is short, these individuals will survive the treatment. This selective elimination of maladapted individuals from a population is natural selection.
These surviving bacteria will then reproduce again, producing the next generation. Due to the elimination of the maladapted individuals in the past generation, this population contains more bacteria that have some resistance against the antibiotic. At the same time, new mutations occur, contributing new genetic variation to the existing genetic variation. Spontaneous mutations are very rare, and advantageous mutations are even rarer. However, populations of bacteria are large enough that a few individuals will have beneficial mutations. If a new mutation reduces their susceptibility to an antibiotic, these individuals are more likely to survive when next confronted with that antibiotic.
Given enough time, and repeated exposure to the antibiotic, a population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria will emerge. This new changed population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is optimally adapted to the context it evolved in. At the same time, it is not necessarily optimally adapted any more to the old antibiotic free environment. The end result of natural selection is two populations that are both optimally adapted to their specific environment, while both perform substandard in the other environment.
The widespread use and misuse of antibiotics has resulted in increased microbial resistance to antibiotics in clinical use, to the point that the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been described as a "superbug" because of the threat it poses to health and its relative invulnerability to existing drugs.[11] Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new strains of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs.[12]
This is an example of what is known as an evolutionary arms race, in which bacteria continue to develop strains that are less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers continue to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. A similar situation occurs with pesticide resistance in plants and insects. Arms races are not necessarily induced by man; a well-documented example involves the elaboration of the RNA interference pathway in plants as means of innate immunity against viruses.[13]
D.A freshwater water fish is adapted to living in freshwater and peeing out water constantly to maintain a salt concentration. If the freshwater fish was placed in saltwater, the freshwater fish would have a lower fitness in this new environment because it is not physically capable of handling all that salt content. “Only populations evolve because evolution requires a competing force as well as variation in order to evolve. A species is rarely represented by a single continuous interbreeding population. Instead, the population of a species is typically composed of a group of subpopulations-local populations of interbreeding individuals, linked to each other in varying degrees by the movement of individuals.”
(14) Explain the difference in gas exchange in fish compared to mammals. Why is there a difference?
A.Fish does gas exchange in water using gills. Mammal do gas exchange in the atmosphere to obtain oxygen using lungs. Fish gills are a countercurrent exchange system. The water flow goes in one direction and blood goes in the opposite direction. This maximizes the amount of oxygen the fish gain from the water.
There is a difference because the oxygen levels in water are lower than in the air and water is a liquid and air is gas. Therefore, fish needs a different method of getting oxygen than mammals.
B.Fishes use gills to take oxygen out of water. Gills have the blood flow directly by them where the blood is oxidized and loses its CO2. Mammals use lungs to exchange oxygen in the atmosphere with the CO2 in their lungs. Fish live in liquid environments where Oxygen is not as abundant. Mammals either come to the surface to breath or live in area where there is a lot of air.
C.http://www.mrothery.co.uk/exchange/exchange.htm#GAS%20EXCHANGE
http://www.scribd.com/doc/8303894/26-Gas-Exchange
as exchange is more difficult for fish than for mammals because the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is less than 1%, compared to 20% in air. (By the way, all animals need molecular oxygen for respiration and cannot break down water molecules to obtain oxygen.) Fish have developed specialised gas-exchange organs called gills, which are composed of thousands of filaments. The filaments in turn are covered in feathery lamellae which are only a few cells thick and contain blood capillaries. This structure gives a large surface area and a short distance for gas exchange. Water flows over the filaments and lamellae, and oxygen can diffuse down its concentration gradient the short distance between water and blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses the opposite way down its concentration gradient. The gills are covered by muscular flaps called opercula on the side of a fish's head. The gills are so thin that they cannot support themselves without water, so if a fish is taken out of water after a while the gills will collapse and the fish suffocates.
Fish ventilate their gills to maintain the gas concentration gradient. They continuously pump their jaws and opercula to draw water in through the mouth and then force it over the gills and out through the opercular valve behind the gills. This one-way ventilation is necessary because water is denser and more viscous than air, so it cannot be contained in delicate sac-like lungs found in air-breathing animals. In the gill lamellae the blood flows towards the front of the fish while the water flows towards the back. This countercurrent system increases the concentration gradient and increases the efficiency of gas exchange. About 80% of the dissolved oxygen is extracted from the water.
D.Fish obtain oxygen from water by their gills. Gill filaments have flattened plates called lamellae. Blood flowing through the capillaries within the lamella pick up oxygen from the water through a countercurrent exchange. Water flows across the lamellae in a direction opposite to the blood flow. Blood entering the gills is low in oxygen so when it flows through the lamellae, it picks up more and more oxygen from the water. Majority of mammals just use their lungs. There is a difference because fish are aquatic animals with gills. Mammals do not have gills as their respiratory organ.
A.Fish does gas exchange in water using gills. Mammal do gas exchange in the atmosphere to obtain oxygen using lungs. Fish gills are a countercurrent exchange system. The water flow goes in one direction and blood goes in the opposite direction. This maximizes the amount of oxygen the fish gain from the water.
There is a difference because the oxygen levels in water are lower than in the air and water is a liquid and air is gas. Therefore, fish needs a different method of getting oxygen than mammals.
B.Fishes use gills to take oxygen out of water. Gills have the blood flow directly by them where the blood is oxidized and loses its CO2. Mammals use lungs to exchange oxygen in the atmosphere with the CO2 in their lungs. Fish live in liquid environments where Oxygen is not as abundant. Mammals either come to the surface to breath or live in area where there is a lot of air.
C.http://www.mrothery.co.uk/exchange/exchange.htm#GAS%20EXCHANGE
http://www.scribd.com/doc/8303894/26-Gas-Exchange
as exchange is more difficult for fish than for mammals because the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is less than 1%, compared to 20% in air. (By the way, all animals need molecular oxygen for respiration and cannot break down water molecules to obtain oxygen.) Fish have developed specialised gas-exchange organs called gills, which are composed of thousands of filaments. The filaments in turn are covered in feathery lamellae which are only a few cells thick and contain blood capillaries. This structure gives a large surface area and a short distance for gas exchange. Water flows over the filaments and lamellae, and oxygen can diffuse down its concentration gradient the short distance between water and blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses the opposite way down its concentration gradient. The gills are covered by muscular flaps called opercula on the side of a fish's head. The gills are so thin that they cannot support themselves without water, so if a fish is taken out of water after a while the gills will collapse and the fish suffocates.
Fish ventilate their gills to maintain the gas concentration gradient. They continuously pump their jaws and opercula to draw water in through the mouth and then force it over the gills and out through the opercular valve behind the gills. This one-way ventilation is necessary because water is denser and more viscous than air, so it cannot be contained in delicate sac-like lungs found in air-breathing animals. In the gill lamellae the blood flows towards the front of the fish while the water flows towards the back. This countercurrent system increases the concentration gradient and increases the efficiency of gas exchange. About 80% of the dissolved oxygen is extracted from the water.
D.Fish obtain oxygen from water by their gills. Gill filaments have flattened plates called lamellae. Blood flowing through the capillaries within the lamella pick up oxygen from the water through a countercurrent exchange. Water flows across the lamellae in a direction opposite to the blood flow. Blood entering the gills is low in oxygen so when it flows through the lamellae, it picks up more and more oxygen from the water. Majority of mammals just use their lungs. There is a difference because fish are aquatic animals with gills. Mammals do not have gills as their respiratory organ.
(13) Explain the differences in gas exchange in birds compared to mammals. Which one is more efficient in gas exchange and why must this be so?
A. Both birds and mammals have lungs.
In addition, birds have accessory air sacs to keep air flowing thru the lungs as they inhale of exhale. Air flows one way only, forming a continuous circuit thru the interconnected system regardless of whether the bird is inhaling or exhaling.
Birds’ gas exchange method is more efficient since they always have air flows anytime. This is crucial for them since flying needs more oxygen.
B.In mammals the air travels from the trachea to the bronchi. Then the bronchi branch off into narrower tubes called the bronchioles. The bronchiole brings the gas to tiny sacs called alveoli. The gas then diffuses across the alveoli wall into the blood or out of the blood (depending on the conc. of O2 and CO2). Mammal’s lung expands while inhaling and compress when exhaling. In birds the air travels from the trachea to the posterior sacs then to the parabronchi within the lungs. In the parabronchi gas exchange occurs along the length of the parabronchi. After the gas leaves the parabronchi it goes into the anterior air sacs then leaves from the trachea. Birds have a one-way airflow lung. (Simple description of bird lungs – Inhalation – posterior air sacs fills with outside air while lungs empty and anterior air sacs fill with air from lungs. Exhalation – posterior air sacs empty, lungs fill with air from posterior sacs, and anterior air sacs empty.)
Birds gas exchange is more efficient because when flying over mountain the partial pressure of oxygen is s low that if birds had lungs like humans they would black out or die because human lungs does not have a continuous flow of oxygen. Bird lungs maximize the amount of oxygen taken in because they have a continuous flow of oxygen in their lung.
C. Both birds and mammals use lungs. Birds have two chambers to get the most oxygen. The first breath goes into one chamber. On the second breath the remaining air goes into another chamber where the rest of O2 is absorbed. Only then is the breath released. Birds need to be able to get a lot of oxygen because it flies in altitudes with low oxygen. Mammals just have one chamber to breath the air is only used once before its released.
D.the avian respiratory system is heterogeneously partitioned and completely separates the functions of ventilation and gas exchange (2). In birds, nine air sacs act as bellows to ventilate the small, constant volume. The air sacs occupy ~90% of the total respiratory system volume in a bird; the remaining 10% is comprised of the lung, containing hundred of gas exchange units called parabronchi.
These structural differences between alveolar and parabronchial lungs result in different models of gas exchange in birds and mammals. The gas-exchanging parabronchi in avian lungs are arranged in parallel and are connected at both ends to secondary bronchi, which act as conducting airways that ventilate the parabronchi with air from the trachea or air sacs. The parabronchi are perfused along their entire length by pulmonary mixed-venous blood, so ventilation and perfusion can be thought of as occurring at right angles to one another and gas exchange in a bird lung is described by a cross-current model (14). The theoretical efficiency of cross-current gas exchange is greater than alveolar exchange, and under ideal conditions arterial PO2 (PaO2) exceeds end-parabronchial (or expired) PO2. In contrast, ideal alveolar gas exchange in mammals can only result in PaO2 equaling expired (i.e., alveolar) values.
E.Birds have air sacs in their lungs to store oxygen even when it is exhaling. During first inhalation, most of the air flows past the lungs into a posterior air sac. That air passes through the lungs upon exhalation and the next inhalation ends up in the anterior air sac. At the same time, the posterior sacs draw in more air. This flow pattern allows oxygenated blood to leave the lungs with the In mammals, the lungs have innumerable small sacs that increase surface area across which oxygen readily diffuses into the bloodstream.
A. Both birds and mammals have lungs.
In addition, birds have accessory air sacs to keep air flowing thru the lungs as they inhale of exhale. Air flows one way only, forming a continuous circuit thru the interconnected system regardless of whether the bird is inhaling or exhaling.
Birds’ gas exchange method is more efficient since they always have air flows anytime. This is crucial for them since flying needs more oxygen.
B.In mammals the air travels from the trachea to the bronchi. Then the bronchi branch off into narrower tubes called the bronchioles. The bronchiole brings the gas to tiny sacs called alveoli. The gas then diffuses across the alveoli wall into the blood or out of the blood (depending on the conc. of O2 and CO2). Mammal’s lung expands while inhaling and compress when exhaling. In birds the air travels from the trachea to the posterior sacs then to the parabronchi within the lungs. In the parabronchi gas exchange occurs along the length of the parabronchi. After the gas leaves the parabronchi it goes into the anterior air sacs then leaves from the trachea. Birds have a one-way airflow lung. (Simple description of bird lungs – Inhalation – posterior air sacs fills with outside air while lungs empty and anterior air sacs fill with air from lungs. Exhalation – posterior air sacs empty, lungs fill with air from posterior sacs, and anterior air sacs empty.)
Birds gas exchange is more efficient because when flying over mountain the partial pressure of oxygen is s low that if birds had lungs like humans they would black out or die because human lungs does not have a continuous flow of oxygen. Bird lungs maximize the amount of oxygen taken in because they have a continuous flow of oxygen in their lung.
C. Both birds and mammals use lungs. Birds have two chambers to get the most oxygen. The first breath goes into one chamber. On the second breath the remaining air goes into another chamber where the rest of O2 is absorbed. Only then is the breath released. Birds need to be able to get a lot of oxygen because it flies in altitudes with low oxygen. Mammals just have one chamber to breath the air is only used once before its released.
D.the avian respiratory system is heterogeneously partitioned and completely separates the functions of ventilation and gas exchange (2). In birds, nine air sacs act as bellows to ventilate the small, constant volume. The air sacs occupy ~90% of the total respiratory system volume in a bird; the remaining 10% is comprised of the lung, containing hundred of gas exchange units called parabronchi.
These structural differences between alveolar and parabronchial lungs result in different models of gas exchange in birds and mammals. The gas-exchanging parabronchi in avian lungs are arranged in parallel and are connected at both ends to secondary bronchi, which act as conducting airways that ventilate the parabronchi with air from the trachea or air sacs. The parabronchi are perfused along their entire length by pulmonary mixed-venous blood, so ventilation and perfusion can be thought of as occurring at right angles to one another and gas exchange in a bird lung is described by a cross-current model (14). The theoretical efficiency of cross-current gas exchange is greater than alveolar exchange, and under ideal conditions arterial PO2 (PaO2) exceeds end-parabronchial (or expired) PO2. In contrast, ideal alveolar gas exchange in mammals can only result in PaO2 equaling expired (i.e., alveolar) values.
E.Birds have air sacs in their lungs to store oxygen even when it is exhaling. During first inhalation, most of the air flows past the lungs into a posterior air sac. That air passes through the lungs upon exhalation and the next inhalation ends up in the anterior air sac. At the same time, the posterior sacs draw in more air. This flow pattern allows oxygenated blood to leave the lungs with the In mammals, the lungs have innumerable small sacs that increase surface area across which oxygen readily diffuses into the bloodstream.
(12) Compare an ectothermic animal to an endothermic animal in terms of thermoregulation. What limitations does each type have and what benefits does each type have?
A. Endothermic animals produce heat themselves metabolically. Their body temperatures are independent of external temperatures. On the other hand, ectothermic animals gain heat from the environment. Thus they also have various body temperatures.
Ectothermic animals become active only when the temperature is sufficiently warm. They have upper and lower thermal limit that they can tolerate. Thus they have to take time to warm their bodies up before being active to do something.
Endothermic animals have to consume a lot of energy to keep their metabolic rate, therefore, their body temperatures constant. Thus they have to spend more times looking for food. When their resources become scarce, these animals tend to enter torpor or hibernation.
The good things of being ectothermic is that they don’t have to consume much energy and they might adapt better to the change of the temperature of the environment compared to the endothermic ones. The benefits of endothermic animals are that they don’t have to be limited by the temperature. Their metabolic systems are able to keep them energetic and active regardless of the change of temperatures.
B.Ectothermic animals cannot produce heat, and only gain heat from the environment. Endothermic animals can produce internal heat. For example, endothermy allows animals to remain active regardless of environmental temperatures, whereas environmental temperatures largely dictate the activity of the ectothermy. Ectoderms absorb heat across their surface but must absorb enough energy to heat the entire body mass. Therefore, the ratio surface area to volume is a key factor in controlling the uptake of heat and the maintenance of body temperature. The constraint that size imposes on endothermy is opposite for ectothermy. For endothermy it is the body mass that produces heat through respiration, while heat is lost to the surrounding environment across the body surface.
C.Endothermic animals can metabolize their own heat. Their body temperature is independent of the surrounding area. Because they must metabolize their own heat endothermic animals must eat to stay warm.
Ectothermic animals receive their temperature from the environment. Ectothermic animals are only active when the weather is warm enough. There is a maximum and minimum temperature they can survive between. The upside is that Ectothermic animals don’t need to eat continually.
D.Endothermic are group of animals generate heat metabolically, internal heat production. “Heat from within”. Exothermic are group of animals acquire heat primarily from external environment. Gaining heat from environment. “Heat from without”.
Ectotherms can curtail metabolic activity in times of food and water shortage and temperature extremes. Their low energy demands enable some terrestrial poikilotherms to colonize area of limited food and water. One of the most important features influencing its ability to regulate body temperature is an animal’s size. A body exchanges heat with the external environment (either air or water) in proportion to the surface area exposed.
Organism has to absorb sufficient energy across its surface to warm the entire body mass, the amount of energy and the period of time require raising body temperature likewise increase. For this reason, ectothermy impose a constraint on maximum body size for cold-blooded animals and restricts the distribution of the large poikilotherms to the warmer, seasonal regions of the subtropics and tropics.
E.Ectoderms rely on heat from the environment for self thermoregulation. Endotherms produce their own heat. Examples of endotherms are small birds and mammals. Examples of ectoderms are amphibians, lizards, snakes, turtles, crocs. Ectoderms must regulate their temperature by soaking in the sun to heat up or staying in a cool dry area to cool off. Endotherms are not restricted to their activity regardless of environmental temperatures. However, because endotherms are not restricted in their activity, they spend more energy and must consume more to regain. Ectoderms can allocate more of their energy intake to biomass production than metabolic needs. Also, because don’t depend on generating body head, they can curtail metabolic activity in times of food and water shortage and temperature extremes. Due to conflicting metabolic demands of body temperature and growth, most young birds and mammals are born in an altricial state (blind, naked, and helpless=beginning as ectoderms to allocate energy towards growth).
A. Endothermic animals produce heat themselves metabolically. Their body temperatures are independent of external temperatures. On the other hand, ectothermic animals gain heat from the environment. Thus they also have various body temperatures.
Ectothermic animals become active only when the temperature is sufficiently warm. They have upper and lower thermal limit that they can tolerate. Thus they have to take time to warm their bodies up before being active to do something.
Endothermic animals have to consume a lot of energy to keep their metabolic rate, therefore, their body temperatures constant. Thus they have to spend more times looking for food. When their resources become scarce, these animals tend to enter torpor or hibernation.
The good things of being ectothermic is that they don’t have to consume much energy and they might adapt better to the change of the temperature of the environment compared to the endothermic ones. The benefits of endothermic animals are that they don’t have to be limited by the temperature. Their metabolic systems are able to keep them energetic and active regardless of the change of temperatures.
B.Ectothermic animals cannot produce heat, and only gain heat from the environment. Endothermic animals can produce internal heat. For example, endothermy allows animals to remain active regardless of environmental temperatures, whereas environmental temperatures largely dictate the activity of the ectothermy. Ectoderms absorb heat across their surface but must absorb enough energy to heat the entire body mass. Therefore, the ratio surface area to volume is a key factor in controlling the uptake of heat and the maintenance of body temperature. The constraint that size imposes on endothermy is opposite for ectothermy. For endothermy it is the body mass that produces heat through respiration, while heat is lost to the surrounding environment across the body surface.
C.Endothermic animals can metabolize their own heat. Their body temperature is independent of the surrounding area. Because they must metabolize their own heat endothermic animals must eat to stay warm.
Ectothermic animals receive their temperature from the environment. Ectothermic animals are only active when the weather is warm enough. There is a maximum and minimum temperature they can survive between. The upside is that Ectothermic animals don’t need to eat continually.
D.Endothermic are group of animals generate heat metabolically, internal heat production. “Heat from within”. Exothermic are group of animals acquire heat primarily from external environment. Gaining heat from environment. “Heat from without”.
Ectotherms can curtail metabolic activity in times of food and water shortage and temperature extremes. Their low energy demands enable some terrestrial poikilotherms to colonize area of limited food and water. One of the most important features influencing its ability to regulate body temperature is an animal’s size. A body exchanges heat with the external environment (either air or water) in proportion to the surface area exposed.
Organism has to absorb sufficient energy across its surface to warm the entire body mass, the amount of energy and the period of time require raising body temperature likewise increase. For this reason, ectothermy impose a constraint on maximum body size for cold-blooded animals and restricts the distribution of the large poikilotherms to the warmer, seasonal regions of the subtropics and tropics.
E.Ectoderms rely on heat from the environment for self thermoregulation. Endotherms produce their own heat. Examples of endotherms are small birds and mammals. Examples of ectoderms are amphibians, lizards, snakes, turtles, crocs. Ectoderms must regulate their temperature by soaking in the sun to heat up or staying in a cool dry area to cool off. Endotherms are not restricted to their activity regardless of environmental temperatures. However, because endotherms are not restricted in their activity, they spend more energy and must consume more to regain. Ectoderms can allocate more of their energy intake to biomass production than metabolic needs. Also, because don’t depend on generating body head, they can curtail metabolic activity in times of food and water shortage and temperature extremes. Due to conflicting metabolic demands of body temperature and growth, most young birds and mammals are born in an altricial state (blind, naked, and helpless=beginning as ectoderms to allocate energy towards growth).
(11) Why does light saturation occur in plants? Explain why shade adapted plants have a higher Specific Leaf Area than shade intolerant plants. Plant A is a shade intolerant species and Plant B is a shade tolerant species. On the graph, label the light compensation point and light saturation point for each species. Explain why the light compensation point is lower for plant B than plant A.
A. When light saturation occurs, the dark reactions limit the rate of photosynthesis due to the limited products of the light reactions which are ATP and NADPH. The plant cannot exceed its working capacity.
Shade adapted plants have a higher specific leaf area than share intolerant plants because they want to maximize the uptake of sunlight by enlarging as much as they can their leaf surface areas.
The light compensation point is the point at which photosynthesis = 0. The photosynthesis rate of a shade intolerant plant is higher than a shade tolerant plant due to its ability to get more sunlight. Less photosynthesis means lower light compensation point.
B.Because plants have a limit on how much photosynthesis they can perform. Shade plants have higher SLA because it maximizes the light use for photosynthesis. Shade intolerant has lower SLA because they are in direct sunlight therefore do not need bigger leaves.
C.In some plants adapted to extremely shaded environments, photosynthetic rates decline as light levels exceed saturation. Plants growing in shaded environments ted tot have lower light compensation point, a lower light saturation point and a lower maximum rate of photosynthesis than plants growing in high-light environments. The shade-tolerant species showed little difference survival and growth rates under sunlight and shade conditions. In contrast, the survival and growth rates of shade-intolerant species were dramatically reduced under shade condition or dramatically increase in light condition this is where we see in the graph. The higher the rate of light saturated photosynthesis results in a high growth rate for the shade-intolerant species in the high-light environment.
D.Light saturation occurs because plants can only photosynthesize with so much light till they hit a maximum light saturation point (point where there is no limit to photosynthesis to the plant). Shade plants have a higher specific leaf area because they are limited to the amount of light they can receive being a shade plant. The larger the leaf area, the more SA it has to capture light. The light compensation point is lower for plant B because it requires a LOWER? amount of light in order to match up to the rate of photosynthesis to the rate of respiration. Plant B is shade adapted so it doesn’t require as high of a light compensation point than Plant A, which is a shade intolerant species.
A. When light saturation occurs, the dark reactions limit the rate of photosynthesis due to the limited products of the light reactions which are ATP and NADPH. The plant cannot exceed its working capacity.
Shade adapted plants have a higher specific leaf area than share intolerant plants because they want to maximize the uptake of sunlight by enlarging as much as they can their leaf surface areas.
The light compensation point is the point at which photosynthesis = 0. The photosynthesis rate of a shade intolerant plant is higher than a shade tolerant plant due to its ability to get more sunlight. Less photosynthesis means lower light compensation point.
B.Because plants have a limit on how much photosynthesis they can perform. Shade plants have higher SLA because it maximizes the light use for photosynthesis. Shade intolerant has lower SLA because they are in direct sunlight therefore do not need bigger leaves.
C.In some plants adapted to extremely shaded environments, photosynthetic rates decline as light levels exceed saturation. Plants growing in shaded environments ted tot have lower light compensation point, a lower light saturation point and a lower maximum rate of photosynthesis than plants growing in high-light environments. The shade-tolerant species showed little difference survival and growth rates under sunlight and shade conditions. In contrast, the survival and growth rates of shade-intolerant species were dramatically reduced under shade condition or dramatically increase in light condition this is where we see in the graph. The higher the rate of light saturated photosynthesis results in a high growth rate for the shade-intolerant species in the high-light environment.
D.Light saturation occurs because plants can only photosynthesize with so much light till they hit a maximum light saturation point (point where there is no limit to photosynthesis to the plant). Shade plants have a higher specific leaf area because they are limited to the amount of light they can receive being a shade plant. The larger the leaf area, the more SA it has to capture light. The light compensation point is lower for plant B because it requires a LOWER? amount of light in order to match up to the rate of photosynthesis to the rate of respiration. Plant B is shade adapted so it doesn’t require as high of a light compensation point than Plant A, which is a shade intolerant species.
(10) Why are most plants on Earth C3 plants? Explain the difference between a C3 and CAM plant in terms of the photosynthetic process. If a plant is a facultative CAM plant, in what conditions would it undergo C3 photosynthesis rather than CAM?
A. C3 plants are likely to appear in areas with moderate temperature, moderate sunlight intensity and plentiful water. And these areas are dominant on Earth.
In C3 plants, stomata are open during daytime; when in CAM plants, nighttime is when they are open.
CAM plants take up CO2 and convert it to malic acid using PEP, then during daytime, they reconvert this acid to CO2, which it then fixes using the C3 cycle. Instead of using PEP, C3 plants have the light reactions to convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.
Since it takes more energy for the CAM pathway to photosynthesize, a facultative CAM plant would undergo C3 photosynthesis when their living environments become less arid. It might happen after having a good amount of precipitation.
B.C3 plants, accounting for more than 95% of earth's plant species, use rubisco to make a three-carbon compound as the first stable product of carbon fixation. C3 plants flourish in cool, wet, and cloudy climates, where light levels may be low, because the metabolic pathway is more energy efficient, and if water is plentiful, the stomata can stay open and let in more carbon dioxide. More CO2 equal more photosynthesis.
C3 plants involve direct carbon fixation of CO2. That is, the initial steps involve the CO2 being bound to ribulose bisphosphate to produce two molecules of three-carbon compound (i.e. 3-phosphogylycerate). The key enzyme that catalyzes carbon fixation is rubisco.
C3 plants must however be in areas where CO2 concentration is high, temperature and light intensity are moderate, and ground water is abundant. This is because in hot areas, the stomata are closed to prevent water loss. However, it results in the rise of O2 level. When this occurs, rubisco reacts with O2 instead of CO2, and leads to photorespiration, which in turn, causes wasteful loss of CO2 in C3 plants.
CAM plants often show xerophytic features, such as thick, reduced leaves with a low surface-area-to-volume ratio, thick cuticle, and stomata sunken into pits.
Cam plants utilize an elaborate carbon fixation pathway in a way that the stomata are open at night to permit entry of CO2 to be fixed and stored as a four-carbon acid(i.e. malate).Then, during the day the CO2 is released for use in the Calvin cycle. In this way, the rubisco is provided with high concentration of CO2 while the stomataare closed during the hottest and driest part of the day to prevent the excessive loss of water. CAM plants are therefore highly adapted to arid conditions.
C.C3 plants make the most energy but they also use the most water. Since water is fairly abundant on earth plants want to get the most energy for their water intake. Both C3 photosynthesis and CAM photosynthesis take place in the same part of the leaf. the difference is that CAM plants only open their stomata at night to take up CO2 and stores it for the day to make sugar out of it but, C3 plants leave their stomata open during photosynthesis and everything takes place at the same time. CAM plants can save water this way, but it cost more energy. If the plant is a facultative CAM plant, meaning it can be either CAM or C3 plant, then it would much rather use C3 photosynthesis because more energy is made but it will only be able to when there is water around.
D.The C3 plants, the capture the light energy and transformation of CO2 into sugars occur in the mesophyll cells. CAM plants oopen their stomata at night, taking up CO2, and converting it to malic acid using PEP, which accumulates in large quantities in the mesophyll cells. During the day, the plant closes its stomata and reconcerts the malic acid into CO2, which it then fixes using the C3 cycle. CAMplants dramatically reduce water loss through transpiration and increase water-use efficiency.
A. C3 plants are likely to appear in areas with moderate temperature, moderate sunlight intensity and plentiful water. And these areas are dominant on Earth.
In C3 plants, stomata are open during daytime; when in CAM plants, nighttime is when they are open.
CAM plants take up CO2 and convert it to malic acid using PEP, then during daytime, they reconvert this acid to CO2, which it then fixes using the C3 cycle. Instead of using PEP, C3 plants have the light reactions to convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.
Since it takes more energy for the CAM pathway to photosynthesize, a facultative CAM plant would undergo C3 photosynthesis when their living environments become less arid. It might happen after having a good amount of precipitation.
B.C3 plants, accounting for more than 95% of earth's plant species, use rubisco to make a three-carbon compound as the first stable product of carbon fixation. C3 plants flourish in cool, wet, and cloudy climates, where light levels may be low, because the metabolic pathway is more energy efficient, and if water is plentiful, the stomata can stay open and let in more carbon dioxide. More CO2 equal more photosynthesis.
C3 plants involve direct carbon fixation of CO2. That is, the initial steps involve the CO2 being bound to ribulose bisphosphate to produce two molecules of three-carbon compound (i.e. 3-phosphogylycerate). The key enzyme that catalyzes carbon fixation is rubisco.
C3 plants must however be in areas where CO2 concentration is high, temperature and light intensity are moderate, and ground water is abundant. This is because in hot areas, the stomata are closed to prevent water loss. However, it results in the rise of O2 level. When this occurs, rubisco reacts with O2 instead of CO2, and leads to photorespiration, which in turn, causes wasteful loss of CO2 in C3 plants.
CAM plants often show xerophytic features, such as thick, reduced leaves with a low surface-area-to-volume ratio, thick cuticle, and stomata sunken into pits.
Cam plants utilize an elaborate carbon fixation pathway in a way that the stomata are open at night to permit entry of CO2 to be fixed and stored as a four-carbon acid(i.e. malate).Then, during the day the CO2 is released for use in the Calvin cycle. In this way, the rubisco is provided with high concentration of CO2 while the stomataare closed during the hottest and driest part of the day to prevent the excessive loss of water. CAM plants are therefore highly adapted to arid conditions.
C.C3 plants make the most energy but they also use the most water. Since water is fairly abundant on earth plants want to get the most energy for their water intake. Both C3 photosynthesis and CAM photosynthesis take place in the same part of the leaf. the difference is that CAM plants only open their stomata at night to take up CO2 and stores it for the day to make sugar out of it but, C3 plants leave their stomata open during photosynthesis and everything takes place at the same time. CAM plants can save water this way, but it cost more energy. If the plant is a facultative CAM plant, meaning it can be either CAM or C3 plant, then it would much rather use C3 photosynthesis because more energy is made but it will only be able to when there is water around.
D.The C3 plants, the capture the light energy and transformation of CO2 into sugars occur in the mesophyll cells. CAM plants oopen their stomata at night, taking up CO2, and converting it to malic acid using PEP, which accumulates in large quantities in the mesophyll cells. During the day, the plant closes its stomata and reconcerts the malic acid into CO2, which it then fixes using the C3 cycle. CAMplants dramatically reduce water loss through transpiration and increase water-use efficiency.
(9) Explain how columns of water move up through the roots, xylem and leaves. What effect does changing the thickness of the leaf boundary layer have on water loss? What adaptation can influence the boundary layer to benefit the plant? What type of root structure might be found in plants growing in low nutrient soils that rely primarily on precipitation for water?
A. Evaporation from leaves pulls water upward from the roots thru water-conducting cells. Cohesion and adhesion properties of water contribute to this transportation by helping countering the downward pull of gravity.
The boundary layer once increases in thickness; it will reduce the transfer of water between the leaves and the atmosphere.
Plants growing in low nutrient soils would increase root production in order to maximize the nutrient uptake from the soil.
B. The cohesion-tension theory
1. Inside a leaf, the area not occupied by cells is filled with moist air. Water diffuses from the inside of the leaf to the atmosphere.
2. As water exits the leaf, the humidity of the spaces inside the leaf drops, causing water to evaporate from the menisci that exist at the air-water interfaces.
3. The resulting tension created at the menisci pulls water that surrounds nearby cells, which in turn pulls water out the xylem.
4. Tension is transmitted from water in leaf xylem through stem all the way to the root xylem by cohesion.
5. Tension pulls water from root cortex cells into root xylem.
6. Tension pulls water from soil into roots.
The thicker the boundary layer the greater the resistance to both transfer of heat, and movement of carbon dioxide and water vapor into and out of leaves. The thickness of the boundary layer depends upon the size and shape of a leaf, the presence or absence of hairs (trichomes) on its surface, and above all, on the speed of air movement around the leaf. Large, broad leaves have a thicker boundary layer than narrow leaves or those with deeply indented lobes on the leaf margin. Surface appendages like trichomes increase the thickness of the boundary layer. In still air, the boundary layer can be several millimeters thick, while a moderate wind will sweep it away entirely.
C. Water can move through roots, xylem, and leaves because water has cohesion between itself. Water sticks to water, so as the plant transpires it pull the water through the roots into other part of the plant. The boundary layer is the moisture around the leaf to help with the water gradient. A thick leaf boundary layer has less transfer of water to the atmosphere than a think boundary layer. A plant will adapt to have a think or think boundary layer to best maximize its use of water. Stomata density can help with the boundary layer as can small hairs on the bottom of leaves. Roots growing in poor nutrient soil would need to spend more energy on root production so it can get more nutrients from precipitation
D.As the water transpires from the leaves, water’s cohesive property pulls the chain of water molecules all the way from the roots through the xylem and into the leaves at a very slow pace. The thicker the leaf boundary layer, the higher the water loss. The steepness of gradient determines how much h2o leaves and influences the transfer of heat from the plant to the surrounding environment. Boundary layer reduces steepness of h2o. The root structure for plants in low nutrient soils and rely on water would be shallow and spread across the ground as far as possible. Leaf size and shape influences the thickness and dynamics of the boundary layer. boundary layers tend to be thicker and more intact in larger leaves
A. Evaporation from leaves pulls water upward from the roots thru water-conducting cells. Cohesion and adhesion properties of water contribute to this transportation by helping countering the downward pull of gravity.
The boundary layer once increases in thickness; it will reduce the transfer of water between the leaves and the atmosphere.
Plants growing in low nutrient soils would increase root production in order to maximize the nutrient uptake from the soil.
B. The cohesion-tension theory
1. Inside a leaf, the area not occupied by cells is filled with moist air. Water diffuses from the inside of the leaf to the atmosphere.
2. As water exits the leaf, the humidity of the spaces inside the leaf drops, causing water to evaporate from the menisci that exist at the air-water interfaces.
3. The resulting tension created at the menisci pulls water that surrounds nearby cells, which in turn pulls water out the xylem.
4. Tension is transmitted from water in leaf xylem through stem all the way to the root xylem by cohesion.
5. Tension pulls water from root cortex cells into root xylem.
6. Tension pulls water from soil into roots.
The thicker the boundary layer the greater the resistance to both transfer of heat, and movement of carbon dioxide and water vapor into and out of leaves. The thickness of the boundary layer depends upon the size and shape of a leaf, the presence or absence of hairs (trichomes) on its surface, and above all, on the speed of air movement around the leaf. Large, broad leaves have a thicker boundary layer than narrow leaves or those with deeply indented lobes on the leaf margin. Surface appendages like trichomes increase the thickness of the boundary layer. In still air, the boundary layer can be several millimeters thick, while a moderate wind will sweep it away entirely.
C. Water can move through roots, xylem, and leaves because water has cohesion between itself. Water sticks to water, so as the plant transpires it pull the water through the roots into other part of the plant. The boundary layer is the moisture around the leaf to help with the water gradient. A thick leaf boundary layer has less transfer of water to the atmosphere than a think boundary layer. A plant will adapt to have a think or think boundary layer to best maximize its use of water. Stomata density can help with the boundary layer as can small hairs on the bottom of leaves. Roots growing in poor nutrient soil would need to spend more energy on root production so it can get more nutrients from precipitation
D.As the water transpires from the leaves, water’s cohesive property pulls the chain of water molecules all the way from the roots through the xylem and into the leaves at a very slow pace. The thicker the leaf boundary layer, the higher the water loss. The steepness of gradient determines how much h2o leaves and influences the transfer of heat from the plant to the surrounding environment. Boundary layer reduces steepness of h2o. The root structure for plants in low nutrient soils and rely on water would be shallow and spread across the ground as far as possible. Leaf size and shape influences the thickness and dynamics of the boundary layer. boundary layers tend to be thicker and more intact in larger leaves
(8) Explain how the various properties of water are important to life (beyond the fact that water is the major component of our cells).
A. Cohesion, hydrogen bonds holding water molecules together, and adhesion, the clinging of one substance to another, help plants to receive water from their roots.
Water is also a good solvent and a vital part of many metabolic processes within the body. In addition, the ability of water to dissolve oxygen is absolutely vital for all aquatic animals.
It also affects climates and helps creating many different biomes.
Water is also important in the process of neutralizing acids and bases as well as in photosynthesis and respiration of plants.
B. High heat capacity these properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature.
Forms hydrogen bonds – relates to heat capacity
Adhesive cohesive – makes water stick together and also polar
Ice liquid gas – if ice sinks life would die but since ice floats due to density it allows life to live under water in cold places by forming a protective layer. Liquid form is use to maintain life (go into detail). Gas form moves water around the world then later become rain.
Excellent solvent. - It is the solvent for the electrolytes and nutrients needed by the cells, and also the solvent to carry waste material away from the cells.
C.Covalent bonds
Water is polar
Dissolves most things
Cohesion between two water molecules
Allows water to move up in a plant.
Causes friction
Water as a solid is less dense than as a liquid
Water floats which means not all of a lake will freeze.
Oxygen dissolves in Water
Digestion
Breaking down and forming molecules
D.The physical arrangement of its component molecules makes water a unique substance. The property of cohesion is due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules tend to stick firmly to each other, resisting external forces that would break these bonds. Molecules on the surface are drawn downward, resulting in a surface that is taut like an inflated balloon. This condition call surface tension is important in lives of aquatic organisms. The surface of the water is able tot support objects and animas such a the water striders and water spiders. Viscosity is the source of frictional resistance to objects moving through water. Water’s greater density can profoundly affect the metabolism of marine organisms inhabiting the deeper waters of the ocean. The solvent properties of water are responsible for most of the minerals (elements and inorganic compounds) found in aquatic environment
E.Water has high specific heat so it helps bodies of waters(ponds, lakes, etc) slowly warm p and cool off. Prevents wide seasonal fluctuations of aquatic habitats. Thermal regulation of organisms because 75-95 percent of the weight of all living cells is water, temperature variation is also moderated relative to changes in ambient temperature. Water has cohesive properties (plants and uptake of water). Surface tension (allows certain organisms to glide across surface). The physical adaptations to aquatic animals allow it to reduce friction against water (viscosity). Viscosity of water is relative to air due to its greater density. May be buoyant if a body submerged in water weights less than the water it displaces. Most aquatic organisms are close to neutral buoyancy (density is similar to that of water) they don’t require structural material to keep them erect. Density of water can affect metabolism in deeper waters because of its greater density, water experiences greater changes to pressure with depth than does air. Universal solvent and is responsible for most of the minerals found in aquatic environments (freshwater vs saltwater fish?). Rain accumulates additional substances as it drops from the clouds. Water is less dense as a solid, supports life in the winter.
A. Cohesion, hydrogen bonds holding water molecules together, and adhesion, the clinging of one substance to another, help plants to receive water from their roots.
Water is also a good solvent and a vital part of many metabolic processes within the body. In addition, the ability of water to dissolve oxygen is absolutely vital for all aquatic animals.
It also affects climates and helps creating many different biomes.
Water is also important in the process of neutralizing acids and bases as well as in photosynthesis and respiration of plants.
B. High heat capacity these properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature.
Forms hydrogen bonds – relates to heat capacity
Adhesive cohesive – makes water stick together and also polar
Ice liquid gas – if ice sinks life would die but since ice floats due to density it allows life to live under water in cold places by forming a protective layer. Liquid form is use to maintain life (go into detail). Gas form moves water around the world then later become rain.
Excellent solvent. - It is the solvent for the electrolytes and nutrients needed by the cells, and also the solvent to carry waste material away from the cells.
C.Covalent bonds
Water is polar
Dissolves most things
Cohesion between two water molecules
Allows water to move up in a plant.
Causes friction
Water as a solid is less dense than as a liquid
Water floats which means not all of a lake will freeze.
Oxygen dissolves in Water
Digestion
Breaking down and forming molecules
D.The physical arrangement of its component molecules makes water a unique substance. The property of cohesion is due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules tend to stick firmly to each other, resisting external forces that would break these bonds. Molecules on the surface are drawn downward, resulting in a surface that is taut like an inflated balloon. This condition call surface tension is important in lives of aquatic organisms. The surface of the water is able tot support objects and animas such a the water striders and water spiders. Viscosity is the source of frictional resistance to objects moving through water. Water’s greater density can profoundly affect the metabolism of marine organisms inhabiting the deeper waters of the ocean. The solvent properties of water are responsible for most of the minerals (elements and inorganic compounds) found in aquatic environment
E.Water has high specific heat so it helps bodies of waters(ponds, lakes, etc) slowly warm p and cool off. Prevents wide seasonal fluctuations of aquatic habitats. Thermal regulation of organisms because 75-95 percent of the weight of all living cells is water, temperature variation is also moderated relative to changes in ambient temperature. Water has cohesive properties (plants and uptake of water). Surface tension (allows certain organisms to glide across surface). The physical adaptations to aquatic animals allow it to reduce friction against water (viscosity). Viscosity of water is relative to air due to its greater density. May be buoyant if a body submerged in water weights less than the water it displaces. Most aquatic organisms are close to neutral buoyancy (density is similar to that of water) they don’t require structural material to keep them erect. Density of water can affect metabolism in deeper waters because of its greater density, water experiences greater changes to pressure with depth than does air. Universal solvent and is responsible for most of the minerals found in aquatic environments (freshwater vs saltwater fish?). Rain accumulates additional substances as it drops from the clouds. Water is less dense as a solid, supports life in the winter.
(7) Describe the water cycle, including definitions of the terms precipitation, evapotranspiration, evaporation, sublimation, infiltration, interception.
A. Water cycle is a travelling and returning process of water from the air to Earth and back to the atmosphere.
Precipitation is a process in which condensed water vapor falls to the Earth’s surface, mostly via rains. This amount of water now is consumed via a process, called interception. But not the whole amount is consumed by plants, animals, or humans; the rest of them never infiltrates the ground but evaporate directly back to the atmosphere.
Precipitation that reaches the soil moves into the ground by infiltration. From there, water finds its way into springs and streams. When being exposed to the Sun in the pond, the ocean, or any kinds of water bodies, water starts to evaporate. This is called evaporation.
In addition to this, water vapor also comes from sublimation in which snow and ice sublime below the melting point temperature and from evapotranspiration which is the total amount of evaporating water from the surfaces of the ground and the vegetation.
B. The water cycle has no starting point. But, we'll begin in the oceans, since that is where most of Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snow packs in warmer climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and ground-water seepage, accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as ground-water discharge, and some ground water finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving, some to reenter the ocean.
C. The water cycle:
There is deep storage of water this is fed by groundwater which is a source of water underneath the earths surface. This is fed by river and any standing water or by precipitation. The river can be fed by the precipitation is rain. It is fed by Evaporation of water from ponds and wildlife, and Transpiration. Transpiration is water moving through trees and out through leaves. Evapotranspiration is the suns evaporation of the transpiration. Sublimation is when a solid goes directly to a gas without being a liquid. This takes place when glaciers melt. Infiltration is the downward movement of water through the soil. Interception is when the vegetation captures the water and the water does not reach the ground.
D.Water cycle is the process by which water travels in the sequence from the air to Earth and returns to the atmosphere. It moves through cloud formation in the atmosphere, precipitation, interception, and infiltration into the ground.
Precipitiation- sets of water cycle in motion. Water vapor, circulating in the atmosphere, eventually falls in some form of precipitation.
Interception-some is intercepted by vegetation, dead organic matter on the ground and urban structures and streets. (Because of interception, which can be considerable, various amounts of water never infiltrate the ground but evaporate directly back to the atmosphere.)
Infiltration-precipitation that reaches the soil moves into the ground. The trate of infiltration depends on the type of soil, slope, vegetation, and intensity of that precipitation.
Transpiration is the evaporation of the water from internal surfaces of leaves, stems, and other living part. (through their roots, they take in water from the soil and lose it through the leaves and other organs in a process called transpiration)
Evapotranspiration-the total amount of evaporating water from the surfaces of the ground and vegetation (surface evaporation plus transpiration)
E.Precipitation: sets the water cycle in motion; water vapor in atmos falls in form of precipitation.
Interception: Some goes to ground, bodies of water, vegetation, organic matter on ground, and urban structures and streets
Infiltration: precipitation that reaches the soil moves into the ground; rate depends on type of soil, slope, vegetation, intensity of precipitation. Excess water can flow across the surface as surface runoff
evapotransipiration: total amount of evaporating water from surfaces of ground and vegetation(surface evaporation + transpiration)
(transpiration = evaporation of water from internal surfaces of leaves,stems,other living parts)
Evaporation: vaporization of liquid water and returning back into atmosphere
sublimation: snow to vapor in air without melting first.
A. Water cycle is a travelling and returning process of water from the air to Earth and back to the atmosphere.
Precipitation is a process in which condensed water vapor falls to the Earth’s surface, mostly via rains. This amount of water now is consumed via a process, called interception. But not the whole amount is consumed by plants, animals, or humans; the rest of them never infiltrates the ground but evaporate directly back to the atmosphere.
Precipitation that reaches the soil moves into the ground by infiltration. From there, water finds its way into springs and streams. When being exposed to the Sun in the pond, the ocean, or any kinds of water bodies, water starts to evaporate. This is called evaporation.
In addition to this, water vapor also comes from sublimation in which snow and ice sublime below the melting point temperature and from evapotranspiration which is the total amount of evaporating water from the surfaces of the ground and the vegetation.
B. The water cycle has no starting point. But, we'll begin in the oceans, since that is where most of Earth's water exists. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snow packs in warmer climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and ground-water seepage, accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as ground-water discharge, and some ground water finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. Over time, though, all of this water keeps moving, some to reenter the ocean.
C. The water cycle:
There is deep storage of water this is fed by groundwater which is a source of water underneath the earths surface. This is fed by river and any standing water or by precipitation. The river can be fed by the precipitation is rain. It is fed by Evaporation of water from ponds and wildlife, and Transpiration. Transpiration is water moving through trees and out through leaves. Evapotranspiration is the suns evaporation of the transpiration. Sublimation is when a solid goes directly to a gas without being a liquid. This takes place when glaciers melt. Infiltration is the downward movement of water through the soil. Interception is when the vegetation captures the water and the water does not reach the ground.
D.Water cycle is the process by which water travels in the sequence from the air to Earth and returns to the atmosphere. It moves through cloud formation in the atmosphere, precipitation, interception, and infiltration into the ground.
Precipitiation- sets of water cycle in motion. Water vapor, circulating in the atmosphere, eventually falls in some form of precipitation.
Interception-some is intercepted by vegetation, dead organic matter on the ground and urban structures and streets. (Because of interception, which can be considerable, various amounts of water never infiltrate the ground but evaporate directly back to the atmosphere.)
Infiltration-precipitation that reaches the soil moves into the ground. The trate of infiltration depends on the type of soil, slope, vegetation, and intensity of that precipitation.
Transpiration is the evaporation of the water from internal surfaces of leaves, stems, and other living part. (through their roots, they take in water from the soil and lose it through the leaves and other organs in a process called transpiration)
Evapotranspiration-the total amount of evaporating water from the surfaces of the ground and vegetation (surface evaporation plus transpiration)
E.Precipitation: sets the water cycle in motion; water vapor in atmos falls in form of precipitation.
Interception: Some goes to ground, bodies of water, vegetation, organic matter on ground, and urban structures and streets
Infiltration: precipitation that reaches the soil moves into the ground; rate depends on type of soil, slope, vegetation, intensity of precipitation. Excess water can flow across the surface as surface runoff
evapotransipiration: total amount of evaporating water from surfaces of ground and vegetation(surface evaporation + transpiration)
(transpiration = evaporation of water from internal surfaces of leaves,stems,other living parts)
Evaporation: vaporization of liquid water and returning back into atmosphere
sublimation: snow to vapor in air without melting first.
(6) How are kelp forests similar to tropical rainforests? In what ways do they differ? Be sure to discuss both the physical conditions and adaptations organisms possess to live in each ecosystem.
A. Both kelp forest and tropical rainforests support lots of life. They also have canopy levels top mid lower. They are different in that one is in water and one is on land. Kelp forest supports marine life and rainforests support land life. (give examples when discussing the physical condition and adaptation of organisms in both places)
B.Kelp forest and Tropical rain forest are similar in many ways. In both situations the smallest plant life has to fight to get light. In the tropics the small plants have developed larger leaves with darker chloroplast to catch as much light as they can. In the kelp forest plants also use darker colors. Kelp forests live underwater and the plants have adapted to have ways of transporting air through itself. Tropical rain forests exist on land. Plants have developed shallow roots to take as much advantage of the scarce water as they can.
C.Kelp forest is under water that is made of seaweed. Kelp needs sunlight in order to grow. It also needs a hard surface to grow on. Kelp forest support marine organism. They both helps living organism survive and have territory. The tropical rainforests support land organism. Plant survival in a tropical rainforest depends on the plant's ability to tolerate constant shade or to adapt strategies to reach sunlight. Fungus is a good example of a plant that flourishes in warm, dark places created by the forest canopy and understory. kelp forests are akin to terrestrial forests in providing a range of microhabitats which supports high levels of biodiversity. However, many kelp are vulnerable to climate change as they are restricted to cold, nutrient rich water. Under predicted climate change scenarios (e.g. strengthening of the East Australian Current), both temperature and nutrients (along with other potential stressors of kelp) are all expected to change in ways that would negatively impact kelp. In response to climate change, species will either shift their distribution or adapt (ie. evolve) to the changing environment.
D.Kelp forests are underwater and have adaptations, like kept afloat through buoyancy of gas-filled bladders and the overcome the constraints imposed by gravity. Rainforests need to remain erect against the force of gravity onland with a significant investment in structural materials (cellulose) and conductive tissues. If the kelp is taken out of water, it would fall into a big mass due to lack of cellulose and lignin. Rainforest plants are similar cuz their roots are shallow and receive large amounts of precipitation.
A. Both kelp forest and tropical rainforests support lots of life. They also have canopy levels top mid lower. They are different in that one is in water and one is on land. Kelp forest supports marine life and rainforests support land life. (give examples when discussing the physical condition and adaptation of organisms in both places)
B.Kelp forest and Tropical rain forest are similar in many ways. In both situations the smallest plant life has to fight to get light. In the tropics the small plants have developed larger leaves with darker chloroplast to catch as much light as they can. In the kelp forest plants also use darker colors. Kelp forests live underwater and the plants have adapted to have ways of transporting air through itself. Tropical rain forests exist on land. Plants have developed shallow roots to take as much advantage of the scarce water as they can.
C.Kelp forest is under water that is made of seaweed. Kelp needs sunlight in order to grow. It also needs a hard surface to grow on. Kelp forest support marine organism. They both helps living organism survive and have territory. The tropical rainforests support land organism. Plant survival in a tropical rainforest depends on the plant's ability to tolerate constant shade or to adapt strategies to reach sunlight. Fungus is a good example of a plant that flourishes in warm, dark places created by the forest canopy and understory. kelp forests are akin to terrestrial forests in providing a range of microhabitats which supports high levels of biodiversity. However, many kelp are vulnerable to climate change as they are restricted to cold, nutrient rich water. Under predicted climate change scenarios (e.g. strengthening of the East Australian Current), both temperature and nutrients (along with other potential stressors of kelp) are all expected to change in ways that would negatively impact kelp. In response to climate change, species will either shift their distribution or adapt (ie. evolve) to the changing environment.
D.Kelp forests are underwater and have adaptations, like kept afloat through buoyancy of gas-filled bladders and the overcome the constraints imposed by gravity. Rainforests need to remain erect against the force of gravity onland with a significant investment in structural materials (cellulose) and conductive tissues. If the kelp is taken out of water, it would fall into a big mass due to lack of cellulose and lignin. Rainforest plants are similar cuz their roots are shallow and receive large amounts of precipitation.
(5) How is the intertidal ecosystem similar to deserts? In what ways do they differ? Be sure to discuss both the physical conditions and adaptations organisms possess to live in each ecosystem.
A. The similarity of these two ecosystems is the harsh living conditions. The temperature in both places might become either really high or really low.
The biggest difference between these two biomes is the water resources. Deserts receive little precipitation annually, thus organisms living there have to know how to conserve water in order to survive.
However, when not being exposed to the air at low tide, the intertidal zone is underwater; this zone also gets a decent amount of fresh water from precipitation. Organisms living here do not have to conserve waters. They are able to adapt to both environments – terrestrial and aquatic.
B. Both intertidal and deserts have extremes. Intertidal has long period of drought and long period of flood. Desert is hot during the day and cold during the night. Desert differs in that they rarely have rain. Intertidal has lots of water but at different times. Intertidal organisms have to control the water in their body because low tide they need to retain water and high tide they need to release water. In the desert organism are always trying to reduce water loss and try to keep cool. (give examples when discussing the physical condition and adaptation of organisms in both places)
C.Intertidal landscapes are similar to desert landscaped because fresh water is scarce in both ecosystems. They differ. Deserts have a lack of water because the wind has removed the moisture from the air. Intertidal ecosystems have a lack of water because the fresh water is tainted with salt. In a intertidal zones animals have evolved to produce a shell to keep water in while it is low tides. In the desert animals have adapted to have light colored hair to keep the harshness of the sun away from their skin. In the ocean Animals have kidneys that keep more fresh water and exposes of salt. In the desert some animals have learned to metabolize their own fresh water.
D.Intertidal zone is an environment of extremes. The intertidal zone undergoes dramatic shifts in environmental conditions with the daily patterns of inundation and exposure. Desserts also deal with extremes environment. They different in temperature.
E.Intertidal zones are exposed to direct sunlight(wide temperature fluctuation), intense solar radiation, and desication during certain times of the day just like in the desert. Animals adapt to surviving during those few hours inside the tidepools just like how desert animals survive through intense heat. Both undergo dramatic shifts in environmental conditions with daily patterns of inundation and exposure. The temp underneath the sand remains constant throughout the year but for the intertidal organisms, the water can reach to 38°C and drop to 10°C in a few hours.
A. The similarity of these two ecosystems is the harsh living conditions. The temperature in both places might become either really high or really low.
The biggest difference between these two biomes is the water resources. Deserts receive little precipitation annually, thus organisms living there have to know how to conserve water in order to survive.
However, when not being exposed to the air at low tide, the intertidal zone is underwater; this zone also gets a decent amount of fresh water from precipitation. Organisms living here do not have to conserve waters. They are able to adapt to both environments – terrestrial and aquatic.
B. Both intertidal and deserts have extremes. Intertidal has long period of drought and long period of flood. Desert is hot during the day and cold during the night. Desert differs in that they rarely have rain. Intertidal has lots of water but at different times. Intertidal organisms have to control the water in their body because low tide they need to retain water and high tide they need to release water. In the desert organism are always trying to reduce water loss and try to keep cool. (give examples when discussing the physical condition and adaptation of organisms in both places)
C.Intertidal landscapes are similar to desert landscaped because fresh water is scarce in both ecosystems. They differ. Deserts have a lack of water because the wind has removed the moisture from the air. Intertidal ecosystems have a lack of water because the fresh water is tainted with salt. In a intertidal zones animals have evolved to produce a shell to keep water in while it is low tides. In the desert animals have adapted to have light colored hair to keep the harshness of the sun away from their skin. In the ocean Animals have kidneys that keep more fresh water and exposes of salt. In the desert some animals have learned to metabolize their own fresh water.
D.Intertidal zone is an environment of extremes. The intertidal zone undergoes dramatic shifts in environmental conditions with the daily patterns of inundation and exposure. Desserts also deal with extremes environment. They different in temperature.
E.Intertidal zones are exposed to direct sunlight(wide temperature fluctuation), intense solar radiation, and desication during certain times of the day just like in the desert. Animals adapt to surviving during those few hours inside the tidepools just like how desert animals survive through intense heat. Both undergo dramatic shifts in environmental conditions with daily patterns of inundation and exposure. The temp underneath the sand remains constant throughout the year but for the intertidal organisms, the water can reach to 38°C and drop to 10°C in a few hours.
(4) Why are mountains so diverse? Why is there a west-east gradient in climate, and therefore, biomes?
A. The temperature and the amount of rainfall vary accordingly to the altitude. Thus divergent biomes will be formed at different elevations. This is why mountains are diverse.
There is a West-East gradient in climate and biomes because the terrestrial topography changes from West to East which leads to the change in biomes as well. The range of biomes from West to East is desert, dry grasslands, prairie, oak woodland, oak-hickory forest, and mesophytic forest.
B. Mountains are diverse because of the water precipitation. The windward side of a mountain supports denser, more vigorous vegetation and different species of plants and animals. The leeward is a desert-like area due to lack of rain. There is a west-east gradient because it reflects the amount of annual precipitation.
C.Mountains can exist in any climate. With that being said mountains also create a rain shadow effect leaving all of the water on one side of the mountain. The other side of the mountain has less moisture. There is a west-east gradient because as the wind travels to higher altitudes the wind doesn’t have the same capacity to carry water and drop it before it reaches the top. Which side is more moist east or west is decided by which side is closer to a water source.
D.Mountainous topography influences local and regional pattern of precipitation. Mountains intercept air flow. As an air mass reaches a mountain, it ascends, cools, becomes saturated with water vapor (because of lower saturation vapor pressure) and releases much of its moisture at upper altitudes of windward side. At a result, the windward side of mountain supports denser, more vigorous vegetation and different species of plants and associated animals than where in some area dry, desert like. In North American, the westerly winds that blow over the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, dropping their moisture on west facing slopes, support vigorous forest growth. By contrast, the eastern slopes exhibit semi desert and desert condition. As the surface currents move westward the water warms, giving the water’s destination, the western Pacific, the warmest ocean surface on Earth. The warmer water of the western Pacific causes the moist maritime air to rise and cool, bringing abundant rainfall to the region. In contrast, the cooler waters of the eastern Pacific result in relatively dry condition along the Peruvian coast.
E.Mountains have a wind-ward and lee-ward side that create a rain shadow effect. Earth’s atmosphere intercepts solar radiation, creating heat and cause thermal patterns that coupled with Earth’s rotation and movement, generate prevailing wins and ocean currents. Movements of air and water influence weather patterns and distribution of rainfall. Temperature and precipitation and geographic variation cause gradients and therefore biomes.
A. The temperature and the amount of rainfall vary accordingly to the altitude. Thus divergent biomes will be formed at different elevations. This is why mountains are diverse.
There is a West-East gradient in climate and biomes because the terrestrial topography changes from West to East which leads to the change in biomes as well. The range of biomes from West to East is desert, dry grasslands, prairie, oak woodland, oak-hickory forest, and mesophytic forest.
B. Mountains are diverse because of the water precipitation. The windward side of a mountain supports denser, more vigorous vegetation and different species of plants and animals. The leeward is a desert-like area due to lack of rain. There is a west-east gradient because it reflects the amount of annual precipitation.
C.Mountains can exist in any climate. With that being said mountains also create a rain shadow effect leaving all of the water on one side of the mountain. The other side of the mountain has less moisture. There is a west-east gradient because as the wind travels to higher altitudes the wind doesn’t have the same capacity to carry water and drop it before it reaches the top. Which side is more moist east or west is decided by which side is closer to a water source.
D.Mountainous topography influences local and regional pattern of precipitation. Mountains intercept air flow. As an air mass reaches a mountain, it ascends, cools, becomes saturated with water vapor (because of lower saturation vapor pressure) and releases much of its moisture at upper altitudes of windward side. At a result, the windward side of mountain supports denser, more vigorous vegetation and different species of plants and associated animals than where in some area dry, desert like. In North American, the westerly winds that blow over the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, dropping their moisture on west facing slopes, support vigorous forest growth. By contrast, the eastern slopes exhibit semi desert and desert condition. As the surface currents move westward the water warms, giving the water’s destination, the western Pacific, the warmest ocean surface on Earth. The warmer water of the western Pacific causes the moist maritime air to rise and cool, bringing abundant rainfall to the region. In contrast, the cooler waters of the eastern Pacific result in relatively dry condition along the Peruvian coast.
E.Mountains have a wind-ward and lee-ward side that create a rain shadow effect. Earth’s atmosphere intercepts solar radiation, creating heat and cause thermal patterns that coupled with Earth’s rotation and movement, generate prevailing wins and ocean currents. Movements of air and water influence weather patterns and distribution of rainfall. Temperature and precipitation and geographic variation cause gradients and therefore biomes.
(3) What are the main elements of climate? How does climate and geography interact to produce abundance and distribution patterns of organisms in the Biosphere?
A.Climate is the long-term average pattern of weather and its main elements are solar radiation, air masses, pressure systems, ocean currents, and topography.
Organisms’ lives depend a lot on the living condition of their habitats. Climate and geography are main factors that determine these conditions – the amount of annual rainfall, the average temperature, the water current, the air current, etc.
B. Solar radiation, Air masses, Pressure systems, Ocean Currents, and Topography.
C. Climate is the long term average pattern of weather. Weather is a combination of atmospheric conditions including temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind and cloudiness to a specific place and time. Geography and climate interact to produce abundance and distribution patterns of organisms. Different organisms need different amounts of water to survive. If there is low amounts of precipitation in an area that has organisms that need lots of water the organism will not survive. Geography provides the space for organisms to grow. If there is a lot of water but only a narrow amount of space because of a geographic feature such as a mountain or canyon then not very many organisms can survive there.
D.Climate is the long-term average pattern of weather and may be local, regional, or global. Geographic variations in climate, primarily temperature and precipitation, govern the large-scale distribution of plants and therefore the nature of terrestrial ecosystems.
Light, heat, moisture, and air movement all vary greatly from one part of the landscape to another, influencing the transfer of heat energy and creating a wide range of localized climates. Climate determines the availability of heat and water on Earth’s surface and influences the amount of solar energy that plant can harness.
E.Elements of climate=long term avg pattern of weather and may be local, regional, or global. (weather=combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, cloudiness, and other atmos conditions)
Geographic variations in climate, primarily temp and precipitation, govern the large-scale distribution of plants and terrestrial ecosystem. Earth intercepts solar radiation and different depending on season. Air temp decreases with altitude. Moisture content dependent on temperature. Rain shadow effect for mountains (heavy vegetation vs arid desert like)
A.Climate is the long-term average pattern of weather and its main elements are solar radiation, air masses, pressure systems, ocean currents, and topography.
Organisms’ lives depend a lot on the living condition of their habitats. Climate and geography are main factors that determine these conditions – the amount of annual rainfall, the average temperature, the water current, the air current, etc.
B. Solar radiation, Air masses, Pressure systems, Ocean Currents, and Topography.
C. Climate is the long term average pattern of weather. Weather is a combination of atmospheric conditions including temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind and cloudiness to a specific place and time. Geography and climate interact to produce abundance and distribution patterns of organisms. Different organisms need different amounts of water to survive. If there is low amounts of precipitation in an area that has organisms that need lots of water the organism will not survive. Geography provides the space for organisms to grow. If there is a lot of water but only a narrow amount of space because of a geographic feature such as a mountain or canyon then not very many organisms can survive there.
D.Climate is the long-term average pattern of weather and may be local, regional, or global. Geographic variations in climate, primarily temperature and precipitation, govern the large-scale distribution of plants and therefore the nature of terrestrial ecosystems.
Light, heat, moisture, and air movement all vary greatly from one part of the landscape to another, influencing the transfer of heat energy and creating a wide range of localized climates. Climate determines the availability of heat and water on Earth’s surface and influences the amount of solar energy that plant can harness.
E.Elements of climate=long term avg pattern of weather and may be local, regional, or global. (weather=combination of temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, cloudiness, and other atmos conditions)
Geographic variations in climate, primarily temp and precipitation, govern the large-scale distribution of plants and terrestrial ecosystem. Earth intercepts solar radiation and different depending on season. Air temp decreases with altitude. Moisture content dependent on temperature. Rain shadow effect for mountains (heavy vegetation vs arid desert like)
(2) What are the levels of ecology? Give an example of when the “flow” of these levels does not apply.
A. Individual is the basic unit of ecology. Population is formed when individuals of the same species gather together. In a given area, these groups of species (or populations) interact directly or indirectly with each other. This is called “community.” An ecosystem is an area within the natural environment when communities of species and some other physical factors of the environment function together. Finally, the biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems.
Example:
Biosphere: the whole Earth → Ecosystem (Biome): marine ecosystem → Community: Coral reefs → Population: a group of clown fishes → Individual: a single clown fish.
B.The smallest level is the individual next is a population, followed by a community, then an ecosystem, then the biome, and finally the biosphere.
C.The levels of ecology are Individual to population to community to ecosystem to landscape to biome to biosphere. In most situations the levels of ecology follow the pattern of the first sentence sometimes it does not. An example of the flow of ecology not following that pattern is the bacteria that allow humans to digest some food. The bacteria is an individual interaction with a populace of bacterium inside of an individual the human.
D.The level range from individual, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, biome, and biosphere. (example of when the “flow” of the these levels does not apply)
E.Same as above^. The flow doesn’t apply when there is a cow which is the individual and inside the cow there is an ecosystem.
A. Individual is the basic unit of ecology. Population is formed when individuals of the same species gather together. In a given area, these groups of species (or populations) interact directly or indirectly with each other. This is called “community.” An ecosystem is an area within the natural environment when communities of species and some other physical factors of the environment function together. Finally, the biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems.
Example:
Biosphere: the whole Earth → Ecosystem (Biome): marine ecosystem → Community: Coral reefs → Population: a group of clown fishes → Individual: a single clown fish.
B.The smallest level is the individual next is a population, followed by a community, then an ecosystem, then the biome, and finally the biosphere.
C.The levels of ecology are Individual to population to community to ecosystem to landscape to biome to biosphere. In most situations the levels of ecology follow the pattern of the first sentence sometimes it does not. An example of the flow of ecology not following that pattern is the bacteria that allow humans to digest some food. The bacteria is an individual interaction with a populace of bacterium inside of an individual the human.
D.The level range from individual, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, biome, and biosphere. (example of when the “flow” of the these levels does not apply)
E.Same as above^. The flow doesn’t apply when there is a cow which is the individual and inside the cow there is an ecosystem.
(1) Explain the differences between the levels of ecology and provide one example of each type: individual, population, interactions, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
A.Individual – a single organism, this level can include any living organism from a plant to an animal. Exp. mouse
population – a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at a given time. Exp. Sheeps, cows, humans
interactions –
community – a group of interacting plants and animals inhabiting a given area. Exp. Woods – deer, trees, bears, bushes
ecosystem – the biotic community and its abiotic environment, functioning as a system. Exp rain forest – rain, sunny, trees, flowers, birds, monkeys, snakes
biosphere – a thin layer about earth in which all living organism exist. Exp. all ecosystems on land and water.
B.Individual: a single organism and example would be a crow.
Population: organisms of the same species interacting in there given area, and example of this is the murder of crows.
Interactions: one organism affecting another organism or population, an example of this would be the crows over eating the worms and the worm populace decreasing.
Community: all populations of different species living and interacting within an ecosystem. This would be the worms being eaten by the crow and having the crow eaten by the hawks, or the completion of the crows by ravens, all within the same field.
Ecosystem: Organisms interacting with other organisms. This would take into effect the amount of precipitation effect on the grass in the field affecting the worms which affect the crows.
Biosphere: thin layer about the earth that supports all life. This links ecosystems with earth systems, such as exchange of minerals. An example of this is the role the plains the crow live on effecting the carbon cycle.
The levels of ecology basically go from a single organism to multiple organism then how those multiple organism interact with other populations and finally how those communities work with the earth.
C.Individual – a single organism, this level can include any living organism from a plant to an animal (ex. A dog, a bird)
Population – a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at a given time. (*some populations compete with other population for limited resources such as food, water, or space)
Community- all populations of different species living and interacting within an ecosystem (*individuals of these populations interact among themselves and with individual of other species to form a community)
Ecosystem- organisms interact with the environment in the context of ecosystem. Ecosystem functions as a collection of related parts that function as a unit. (*ecosystem consist of two basic interacting components living biotic and nonliving abiotic.)
Landscape-an area of land (of water composed of patchwork of communites and ecosystem (*although each ecosystem on the landscape is distinct in that it is composed of a unique combination of physical conditions (such as a topography and soils) and associated sets of plant and animals population.
Biomes- the broad-scale regions dominated by similar types of ecosystems such as topical rain forest, grasslands and deserts
Biosphere- the highest level of organization of ecological system is the biosphere-the thin layer about the Earth that supports of all life. (*in context the biosphere, all ecosystem both on land and in the water are linked through their interactions-exchanges of materials and energy with the other component of Earth system: atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere.)
D.Individual: one organism and focuses on what characteristics allow the species to survive
Population: a group of organisms; the amount of individuals in the pop. And how #s change
Interactions: interactions among individuals and interactions among a community
community: more than one group of species interacting with each other
Ecosystem: organisms interact with the environment; biotic + abiotic factors
Biosphere: all ecosystems are linked through their interactions with-exchanges of materials and energy other components of the earth system
A.Individual – a single organism, this level can include any living organism from a plant to an animal. Exp. mouse
population – a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at a given time. Exp. Sheeps, cows, humans
interactions –
community – a group of interacting plants and animals inhabiting a given area. Exp. Woods – deer, trees, bears, bushes
ecosystem – the biotic community and its abiotic environment, functioning as a system. Exp rain forest – rain, sunny, trees, flowers, birds, monkeys, snakes
biosphere – a thin layer about earth in which all living organism exist. Exp. all ecosystems on land and water.
B.Individual: a single organism and example would be a crow.
Population: organisms of the same species interacting in there given area, and example of this is the murder of crows.
Interactions: one organism affecting another organism or population, an example of this would be the crows over eating the worms and the worm populace decreasing.
Community: all populations of different species living and interacting within an ecosystem. This would be the worms being eaten by the crow and having the crow eaten by the hawks, or the completion of the crows by ravens, all within the same field.
Ecosystem: Organisms interacting with other organisms. This would take into effect the amount of precipitation effect on the grass in the field affecting the worms which affect the crows.
Biosphere: thin layer about the earth that supports all life. This links ecosystems with earth systems, such as exchange of minerals. An example of this is the role the plains the crow live on effecting the carbon cycle.
The levels of ecology basically go from a single organism to multiple organism then how those multiple organism interact with other populations and finally how those communities work with the earth.
C.Individual – a single organism, this level can include any living organism from a plant to an animal (ex. A dog, a bird)
Population – a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at a given time. (*some populations compete with other population for limited resources such as food, water, or space)
Community- all populations of different species living and interacting within an ecosystem (*individuals of these populations interact among themselves and with individual of other species to form a community)
Ecosystem- organisms interact with the environment in the context of ecosystem. Ecosystem functions as a collection of related parts that function as a unit. (*ecosystem consist of two basic interacting components living biotic and nonliving abiotic.)
Landscape-an area of land (of water composed of patchwork of communites and ecosystem (*although each ecosystem on the landscape is distinct in that it is composed of a unique combination of physical conditions (such as a topography and soils) and associated sets of plant and animals population.
Biomes- the broad-scale regions dominated by similar types of ecosystems such as topical rain forest, grasslands and deserts
Biosphere- the highest level of organization of ecological system is the biosphere-the thin layer about the Earth that supports of all life. (*in context the biosphere, all ecosystem both on land and in the water are linked through their interactions-exchanges of materials and energy with the other component of Earth system: atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere.)
D.Individual: one organism and focuses on what characteristics allow the species to survive
Population: a group of organisms; the amount of individuals in the pop. And how #s change
Interactions: interactions among individuals and interactions among a community
community: more than one group of species interacting with each other
Ecosystem: organisms interact with the environment; biotic + abiotic factors
Biosphere: all ecosystems are linked through their interactions with-exchanges of materials and energy other components of the earth system
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